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| The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove descending on the Holy Family, with God the Father and angels shown atop, by Murillo, c. 1677. |
The New Testament includes over 90 references to the Holy Spirit.[4] All three Synoptic Gospels proclaim blasphemy against the Holy Spirit as the unforgivable sin.[5] The Holy Spirit plays a key role in the Pauline epistles.[6] In the Johannine writings, three separate terms, "Holy Spirit", "Spirit of Truth", and "Paraclete" are used.[7]
The New Testament details a close relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry.[8] The Gospels of Luke and Matthew and the Nicene Creed state that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary".[9] The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus as a dove during his baptism, and in his Farewell Discourse after the Last Supper Jesus promised to send the Holy Spirit to his disciples after his departure.[10][11]
The theology of the Holy Spirit is called pneumatology. The Holy Spirit is referred to as "the Lord, the Giver of Life" in the Nicene Creed, which summarises several key beliefs held by many Christian denominations. The participation of the Holy Spirit in the tripartite nature of conversion is apparent in Jesus' final post-Resurrection instruction to his disciples at the end of the Gospel of Matthew (28:19): "make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit".[12] Since the first century, Christians have also called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, absolution and benediction.[13][14]
Etymology and usage
The Koine Greek word pneûma (πνεῦμα) is found around 385 times in the New Testament, with some scholars differing by three to nine occurrences.[15] Pneuma appears 105 times in the four canonical gospels, 69 times in the Acts of the Apostles, 161 times in the Pauline epistles, and 50 times elsewhere.[15] These usages vary: in 133 cases, it refers to "spirit" in a general sense and in 153 cases to "spiritual".[clarification needed] Around 93 times, the reference to the Holy Spirit,[15] sometimes under the name pneuma and sometimes explicitly as the pneûma tò Hagion (Πνεῦμα τὸ Ἅγιον). (In a few cases it is also simply used generically to mean wind or life.[15]) It was generally translated into the Vulgate as Spiritus and Spiritus Sanctus.The English terms "Holy Ghost" and "Holy Spirit" are complete synonyms: one derives from the Old English gast and the other from the Latin loanword spiritus. Like pneuma, they both refer to the breath, to its animating power, and to the soul. The Old English term is shared by all other Germanic languages (compare, e.g., the German Geist) and is older, but the King James Bible used both interchangeably, and 20th-century translations of the Bible overwhelmingly prefer "Holy Spirit", probably because the general English term "ghost" has increasingly come to refer only to the spirit of a dead person.[16][17][18]
Biblical references
The term Holy Spirit appears at least 90 times in the New Testament, but only three times in the Old Testament.[4] The sacredness of the Holy Spirit is affirmed in all three Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 12:30–32, Mark 3:28–30 and Luke 12:8–10) which proclaim that blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is the unforgivable sin.[5] The participation of the Holy Spirit in the tripartite nature of conversion is apparent in Jesus' final post-Resurrection instruction to his disciples at the end of the Gospel of Matthew (28:19):[19] "Go ye therefore, and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit".[12]Old Testament
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This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (June 2014) |
Synoptic Gospels
The Holy Spirit as a dove in the Annunciation, by Philippe de Champaigne, 1644
Mark 13:11 specifically refers to the power of the Holy Spirit to act and speak through the disciples of Jesus in time of need: "be not anxious beforehand what ye shall speak: but whatsoever shall be given you in that hour, that speak ye; for it is not ye that speak, but the Holy Spirit." Matthew 10:20 refers to the same act of speaking through the disciples, but uses the term "Spirit of your Father".[21]
The sacredness of the Holy Spirit is affirmed in all three Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 12:30–32, Mark 3:28–30 and Luke 12:8–10) which proclaim that blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is the unforgivable sin.[5]
Johannine literature
Main article: Holy Spirit in Johannine literature
Three separate terms, namely Holy Spirit, Spirit of Truth and Paraclete are used in the Johannine writings.[7] The "Spirit of Truth" in used in John 14:17, 15:26 and 16:13.[4] The First Epistle of John then contrasts this with the "spirit of error" in 1 John 4:6.[4]
1 John 4:1–6 provides the separation between spirits "that confesseth
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of God" and those who in error
refuse it—an indication of their being evil spirits.[22]In John 14:26 Jesus states: "But the Comforter, [even] the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things". The identity of the "Comforter" has been the subject of debate among theologians, who have proposed multiple theories on the matter.[23]
Pauline Epistles
Main article: Holy Spirit in the Pauline epistles
Stained glass representation of the Holy Spirit as a dove, c. 1660.
The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, which was likely the first of Paul's letters, introduces a characterization of the Holy Spirit in 1:6 and 4:8 which is found throughout his epistles.[24] In 1 Thessalonians 1:6 Paul refers to the imitation of Christ (and himself) and states: "And ye became imitators of us, and of the Lord, having received the word in much affliction, with joy of the Holy Spirit", whose source is identified in 1 Thessalonians 4:8 as "God, who giveth his Holy Spirit unto you".[24][25][26]
These two themes of receiving the Spirit "like Christ" and God being the source of the Spirit persist in Pauline letters as the characterization of the relationship of Christians with God.[24] For Paul the imitation of Christ involves readiness to be shaped by the Holy Spirit, as in Romans 8:4 and 8:11: "But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwelleth in you, he that raised up Christ Jesus from the dead shall give life also to your mortal bodies through his Spirit that dwelleth in you."[25]
The First Epistle to the Thessalonians also refers to the power of the Holy Spirit in 1:5, a theme also found in other Pauline letters.[27]
Acts of the Apostles
Main article: Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles has sometimes been called the "Book of the Holy Spirit" or the "Acts of the Holy Spirit".[28][29] Of the seventy or so occurrences of the word Pneuma in Acts, fifty-five refer to the Holy Spirit.[29]From the start, in Acts 1:2, the reader is reminded that the ministry of Jesus, while he was on earth, was carried out through the power of the Holy Spirit and that the "acts of the apostles" continue the acts of Jesus and are also facilitated by the Holy Spirit.[29] Acts presents the Holy Spirit as the "life principle" of the early Church and provides five separate and dramatic instances of its outpouring on believers in 2:1–4, 4:28–31, 8:15–17, 10:44 and 19:6.[28]
References to the Holy Spirit appear throughout Acts, for example Acts 1:5 and 8 stating towards the beginning: "For John indeed baptized with water; but ye shall be baptized in the Holy Spirit ... ye shall receive power, when the Holy Spirit is come upon you" referring to the fulfillment of the prophecy of John the Baptist in Luke 3:16: "he shall baptize you in the Holy Spirit".[30]
Jesus and the Holy Spirit
In the Farewell Discourse Jesus promised to send the Holy Spirit to his disciples after his departure,[11] depiction from the Maesta by Duccio, 1308–1311.
Specific New Testament references to the interaction of Jesus and the Holy Spirit during his earthly life, and the enabling power of the Holy Spirit during his ministry include:[8][9][31]
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- Baptism of Jesus, with the Holy Spirit descending on him as a dove in Matthew 3:13–17, Mark 1:9–11 and Luke 3:21–23
- Temptation of Jesus, in Matthew 4:1 the Holy Spirit led Jesus to the desert to be tempted
- The Spirit casting out demons (Matthew 12:28), in Exorcising the blind and mute man miracle
- Rejoice the Spirit in Luke 10:21 where seventy disciples are sent out by Jesus
- In Matthew 26:41 during the Agony in the Garden before his crucifixion, Jesus tells his disciples to watch and pray, in order not to fall into temptation for "the Spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak"
- Acts 1:2 states that until his death and resurrection, Jesus "had given commandment through the Holy Spirit unto the apostles"
- Referring to the sacrifice of Jesus to be crucified out of obedience to the father, the Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews 9:14 states that Jesus "through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish unto God"
Mainstream doctrines
See also: Pneumatology (Christianity)
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In early Christianity, the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit".[13][14] and since the first century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction.[13][14] This is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity".[13]
For the majority of Christians, the Holy Spirit is the third Person of the Holy Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and is Almighty God.[1][2][34] The Holy Spirit is understood to be one of the three persons of the Trinity. As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and Son of God.[1][2][34] He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (and, according to Roman Catholics, Old Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants, from the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed.[2][35] The Triune God is thus manifested as three Persons (Greek hypostases),[36] in One Divine Being (Greek: Ousia),[3] called the Godhead (from Old English: Godhood), the Divine Essence of God.[37]
In the New Testament, by the power of the Holy Spirit Jesus was conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary, while maintaining her virginity.[38] The Holy Spirit descended over Jesus in a corporal way, as a dove, at the time of his baptism, and a voice from Heaven was heard: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased."[39][39][40] He is the Sanctifier of souls, the Helper,[41] Comforter,[42] the Giver of graces, he who leads souls to the Father and the Son.[33]
The Holy Spirit is credited inspiring believers and allowing for them to interpret all the sacred scripture and leads prophets, both in Old Testament and New Testament.[43] Christians receive the Fruits of the Holy Spirit by means of his mercy and grace.[44]
God the Holy Spirit
Main article: God in Christianity
A depiction of the Trinity consisting of God the Holy Spirit along with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus)
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In Christian theology Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.[48] The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".[49] The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in the individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life.[48] The Holy Spirit also acts as comforter or Paraclete, one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. And it acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.[50] Another faculty of the Holy Spirit is the inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and/or church.[51]
Fruit and Gifts of the Spirit
Main articles: Fruit of the Holy Spirit, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit
St. Josaphat Cathedral in Edmonton, Canada is shaped as a cross with seven copper domes representing the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit.
But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self-control; against such there is no law.In the Epistle to the Galatians these nine characteristics are in contrast to the "works of the flesh" and highlight the positive manifestations of the work of the Holy Spirit in believers.[53]
The "gifts of the Holy Spirit"[52] are distinct from the Fruit of the Spirit, and consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.[48] They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, Charisma, from which the term charismatic derives. There is no generally agreed upon exhaustive list of the gifts, and various Christian denominations use different lists, often drawing upon 1 Corinthians 12, Romans 12 and Ephesians 4.[54] Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement teach that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the major denominations.[54] Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism with the Holy Spirit or Filling with the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. However, many Christian denominations hold that the Baptism with the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.[54]
The "seven gifts of the Holy Spirit"[52] pour out on a believer at baptism, and are traditionally derived from Isaiah 11:1–2, although the New Testament does not refer to Isaiah 11:1–2 regarding these gifts.[54][55] These 7 gifts are: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude (strength), knowledge, piety and fear of the Lord.[54][55] This is the view of the Catholic Church[52][55] and many other mainstream Christian groups.[54]
Denominational variations
Main article: Holy Spirit (Christian denominational variations)
Icon of the Fathers of the Council holding the Nicene Creed
The Filioque debate centers around whether the Nicene Creed should state that the Spirit "proceeds from the Father" and then have a stop, as the creed was initially adopted in Greek (and followed thereafter by the Eastern Church), or should say "from the Father and the Son" as was later adopted in Latin and followed by the Western Church, filioque being "and the Son" in Latin.[58]
Towards the end of the 20th century, discussions took place about the removal of Filioque in the Nicene Creed from Anglican prayer books along the lines of the Eastern Orthodox approach, but these still have not reached a state of final implementation.[59]
The majority of mainstream Protestantism hold similar views on the theology of the Holy Spirit as the Roman Catholic Church, but there are significant differences in belief between Pentecostalism and the rest of Protestantism.[1][60] Pentecostalism has a focus on "Baptism with the Spirit", relying on Acts 1:5 which refers to "now you will baptize with the Holy Spirit".[61] The more recent Charismatic movements have a focus on the "gifts of the Spirit" (such as healing, prophecy, etc.) and rely on 1 Corinthians 12 as a scriptural basis, but often differ from Pentecostal movements.[62]
Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ significantly from mainstream Christian doctrine. Jehovah's Witnesses view the Holy Spirit, not as an actual person separate from God the Father, but as God's eternal "energy" or "active force", that he uses to accomplish his will in creation and redemption.[63]
Mormons believe that the Holy Ghost is the third member of the Godhead. He is a personage of spirit, without a body of flesh and bones.[64] He is often referred to as the Spirit, the Holy Spirit, the Spirit of God, the Spirit of the Lord, or the Comforter.[65]
Symbolism and art
Symbolism
The Holy Spirit as a dove on a stamp from Faroe Islands.
- Water – signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism, such that in the manner that "by one Spirit [believers] were all baptized", so they are "made to drink of one Spirit".[1Cor 12:13] Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified[Jn 19:34] [1 Jn 5:8] as its source and welling up in Christians to eternal life.[66][67] The Catechism of the Catholic Church, item 1137, considers the Water of Life reference in the Book of Revelation (21:6 and 22:1) "one of most beautiful symbols of the Holy Spirit".[68]
- Anointing – The symbolism of bless with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit is referred to as his "anointing".[2Cor 1:21] In some denominations anointing is practiced in Confirmation; ("chrismation" in the Eastern Churches). Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. The title "Christ" (in Hebrew, messiah) means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.[66][67]
- Fire – symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rested on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost.[66][67]
- Cloud and light – The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'"[67][Lk 9:34–35]
- The dove – When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him.[66][67][Mt 3:16]
- Wind – The Spirit is likened to the "wind that blows where it will,"[Jn 3:8] and described as "a sound from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind."[Acts 2:24] [66]
Art and architecture
Main article: Holy Spirit in Christian art
The Holy Spirit as a dove in the Annunciation by Rubens, 1628
The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus like a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan.[72] In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, as the Archangel Gabriel announces Jesus Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great─as recorded by his secretary or other church father authors, dictating their works to them. The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge, as a symbol of peace.[72]
The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.[73]
Gallery
Visual arts
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Representation as both dove and flames, Ravensburg, Germany, 1867
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Ray of light representation in Russian icon of the Pentecost, 15th century
